Knowledge Elicitation Tool Classification
Janet E. Burge
Artificial Intelligence Research Group
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Knowledge Elicitation Methods *
KE Methods by Interaction Type *
Interviewing * KE Methods by Knowledge Type Obtained *
Case Study *
Protocols *
Critiquing *
Role Playing *
Simulation *
Prototyping *
Teachback *
Observation *
Goal Related *
List Related *
Construct Elicitation *
Sorting *
Laddering *
20 Questions *
Document Analysis *
Procedures * References *
Problem Solving Strategy *
Goals/Subgoals *
Classification *
Dependencies/Relationships *
Evaluation *
Table 1. KE Techniques Grouped by Interaction Type * Knowledge Elicitation Methods
Table 2. Interview Methods *
Table 3. Case Study Methods *
Table 4. Protocol Methods *
Table 5. Critiquing Methods *
Table 6. Role Playing Methods *
Table 7. Simulation Methods *
Table 8. Prototyping Methods *
Table 9. Teachback Methods *
Table 10. Observation Methods *
Table 11. Goal Related Methods *
Table 12. List Related Methods *
Table 13. Construct Elicitation Methods *
Table 14. Sorting Methods *
Table 15. Laddering Methods *
Table 16. 20 Questions Method *
Table 17. Document Analysis Methods *
Table 18. Methods that Elicit Procedures *
Table 19. Methods that Elicit Problem Solving Strategy *
Table 20. Methods that Elicit Goals/Subgoals *
Table 21. Methods that Elicit Classification of Domain Entities *
Table 22. Methods that Elicit Relationships *
Table 23. Methods that Elicit Evaluations *
Many Knowledge Elicitation (KE) methods have been used to obtain the information required to solve problems. These methods can be classified in many ways. One common way is by how directly they obtain information from the domain expert. Direct methods involve directly questioning a domain expert on how they do their job. In order for these methods to be successful, the domain expert has to be reasonably articulate and willing to share information. The information has to be easily expressed by the expert, which is often difficult when tasks frequently performed often become 'automatic.' Indirect methods are used in order to obtain information that can not be easily expressed directly.
Two other ways of classifying methods are discussed in this document. One classifies the methods by how they interact with the domain expert. Another classifies them by what type of information is obtained.
Other factors that influence the choice of KE method are the amount of domain knowledge required by the knowledge engineer and the effort required to analyze the data.
KE Methods by Interaction Type There are many ways of grouping KE methods. One is to group them by the type of interaction with the domain expert. Table 1 shows the categories and the type of information produced.
Category Examples Type Results Interview Structured
Unstructured
Semi-StructuredDirect Varies depending on questions asked Case Study Critical Incident Method
Forward Scenario Simulation
Critical Decision MethodDirect Procedures followed, rationale Protocols Protocol Analysis Direct Procedures followed, rationale Critiquing Critiquing Direct Evaluation of problem solving strategy compared to alternatives Role Playing Role Playing Indirect Procedures, difficulties encountered due to role Simulation Simulation
Wizard of OzDirect Procedures followed Prototyping Rapid Prototyping
StoryboardingDirect Evaluation of proposed approach Teachback Teachback Direct Correction of Misconceptions Observation Observation Procedure followed Goal Related Goal Decomposition
Dividing the DomainDirect Goals and subgoals, groupings of goals List Related Decision Analysis Direct Estimate of worth of all decisions for a task Construct Elicitation Repertory Grid
Multi-dimensional ScalingIndirect Entities, attributes, sometimes relationships Sorting Card Sorting Indirect Classification of entities (dimension chosen by subject) Laddering Laddered Grid Indirect Hierarchical map of the task domain 20 Questions 20 Questions Indirect Information used to solve problems, organization of problem space Document Analysis Document Analysis Indirect (usually) Varies depending on available documents, interaction with experts
Interviewing Interviewing consists of asking the domain expert questions about the domain of interest and how they perform their tasks. Interviews can be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured. The success of an interview session is dependent on the questions asked (it is difficult to know which questions should be asked, particularly if the interviewer is not familiar with the domain) and the ability of the expert to articulate their knowledge. The expert may not remember exactly how they perform a task, especially if it is one that they perform automatically". Some interview methods are used to build a particular type of model of the task. The model is built by the knowledge engineer based on information obtained during the interview and then reviewed with the domain expert. In some cases, the models can be built interactively with the expert, especially if there are software tools available for model creation. Table 2 shows a list of interview methods.
Method Type Output Reference Interviewing (structured, unstructured, semi-structured) Direct Procedures followed, knowledge used (easily verbalized knowledge) [Hudlicka, 1997], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Concept Mapping Direct Procedures followed [Hudlicka, 1997], [Thordsen, 1991], [Gowin & Novak, 1984] Interruption Analysis Direct Procedures, problem-solving strategy, rationale [Hudlicka, 1997] ARK (ACT-based representation of knowledge) (combination of methods) Direct Goal-subgoal network
Includes production rules describing goal/subgoal relationship[Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Cognitive Structure Analysis (CSA) Direct Representational format of experts knowledge; content of the knowledge structure [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Problem discussion Direct Solution strategies [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Tutorial interview Direct Whatever expert teaches! [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Uncertain information elicitation Uncertainty about problems [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Data flow modeling Direct Data flow diagram (data items and data flow between them – no sequence information) [OTT, 1998], [Gane & Sarson, 1977] Entity-relationship modeling Direct Entity relationship diagram (entities, attributes, and relationships) [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] Entity life modeling Direct Entity life cycle diagram (entities and state changes) [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] Object oriented modeling Direct Network of objects (types, attributes, relations) [OTT, 1998], [Riekert, 1991] Semantic nets Direct Semantic Net (inc. relationships between objects) [OTT, 1998], [Atkinson, 1990] IDEF modeling Direct IDEF Model (functional decomposition) [OTT, 1998], [McNeese & Zaff, 1991] Petri nets Direct Functional task net [OTT, 1998], [Coovert et al., 1990], [Hura, 1987], [Weingaertner & Lewis, 1988] Questionnaire Direct Sequence of task actions, cause and effect relationships [OTT, 1998], [Bainbridge, 1979] Task action mapping Direct Decision flow diagram (goals, subgoals, actions) [OTT, 1998], [Coury et al., 1991] User Needs Analysis (decision process diagrams) Direct Decision process diagrams [OTT, 1998], [Coury et al., 1991]
Case Study In Case Study methods different examples of problems/tasks within a domain are discussed. The problems consist of specific cases that can be typical, difficult, or memorable. These cases are used as a context within which directed questions are asked. Table 3 shows a list of methods that use cases to obtain information.
Method Type Output Reference Retrospective case description Direct Procedures followed [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Critical incident strategy Direct Complete plan, plus factors that influenced the plan. [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Forward scenario simulation Direct Procedures followed, reasons behind them [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Critical Decision Method Direct Goals considered, options generated, situation assessment [Hudlicka, 1997], [Thordsen, 1991], [Klein et al., 1986] Retrospective case description Direct Procedures used to solve past problems [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Interesting cases Direct Procedures used to solve unusual problems [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Protocols Protocol analysis [Ericsson and Simon, 1984] involves asking the expert to perform a task while "thinking aloud." The intent is to capture both the actions performed and the mental process used to determine these actions. As with all the direct methods, the success of the protocol analysis depends on the ability of the expert to describe why they are making their decision. In some cases, the expert may not remember why they do things a certain way. In many cases, the verbalized thoughts will only be a subset of the actual knowledge used to perform the task. One method used to augment this information is Interruption analysis. For this method, the knowledge engineer interrupts the expert at critical points in the task to ask questions about why they performed a particular action.
For design, protocol analysis would involve asking the expert to perform the design task. This may or not be possible depending on what is being designed or the length of time normally required to perform a design task. Interruption analysis would be useful in determining why subtasks are performed in a particular order. One disadvantage, however, is that the questions could distract the expert enough that they may make mistakes or start "second guessing" their own decisions.
If time and resources were available, it would be interesting to perform protocol analysis of the same task using multiple experts noting any differences in ordering. This could obtain both alternative orderings and, after questioning the expert, the rationale for their decisions.
Table 4 lists protocol analysis.
Method Type Output Reference protocol analysis (think aloud, talk aloud, eidetic reduction, retrospective reporting, behavioral descriptions, playback) Direct Procedures, problem-solving strategy [Hudlicka, 1997], [Ericsson & Simon, 1984], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990]
Critiquing In Critiquing, an approach to the problem/task is evaluated by the expert. This is used to determine the validity of results of previous KE sessions. Table 5 lists critiquing methods.
Method Type Output Reference Critiquing Direct Evaluation of a problem solving strategy compared to alternatives [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Role Playing In Role Playing, the expert adapts a role and acts out a scenario where their knowledge is used [Geiwitz, et al., 1990]. The intent is that by viewing a situation from a different perspective, information will be revealed that was not discussed when the expert was asked directly. Table 6 shows role playing.
Method Type Output Reference role playing Indirect Procedures, difficulties encountered due to role [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Simulation In Simulation methods, the task is simulated using a computer system or other means. This is used when it is not possible to actually perform the task. Table 7 shows simulation methods.
Method Type Output Reference wizard of oz Direct Procedures followed [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Simulations Direct Problem solving strategies, procedures [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Problem analysis Direct Procedures, rationale (like simulated interruption analysis) [Geiwitz, et al., 1990]
PrototypingIn Prototyping, the expert is asked to evaluate a prototype of the proposed system being developed. This is usually done iteratively as the system is refined. Table 8 shows prototyping methods.
Method Type Output Reference System refinement Direct
New test cases for a prototype system [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] System examination Direct Experts opinion on prototype’s rules and control structures [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] System validation Direct Outside experts evaluation of cases solved by expert and protocol system [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Rapid prototyping Direct Evaluation of system/procedure [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Diaper, 1989] Storyboarding Direct Prototype display design [OTT, 1998], [McNeese & Zaff, 1991]
Teachback In Teachback, the knowledge engineer attempts to teach the information back to the expert, who then provides corrections and fills in gaps. Table 9 shows teachback methods.
Method Type Output Reference teachback Direct Correction of misconceptions [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Observation In Observation methods, the knowledge engineer observes the expert performing a task. This prevents the knowledge engineer from inadvertently interfering in the process, but does not provide any insight into why decisions are made. Table 10 shows observation methods.
Method Type Output Reference Discourse analysis (observation) Direct Taxonomy of tasks/subtasks or functions [OTT, 1998], [Belkin & Brooks, 1988] On-site observation Direct Procedure, problem solving strategies [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Active participation Direct Knowledge and skills needed for task [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Goal RelatedIn Goal Related methods, focused discussion techniques are used to elicit information about goals and subgoals. Table 11 shows goal related methods.
Method Type Output Reference Goal Decomposition Direct Goals and subgoals [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Dividing the domain Direct How data is grouped to reach a goal [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Reclassification Direct Evidence needed to prove that a decision was correct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Distinguishing goals Direct Minimal sets of discriminating features [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Goal Directed Analysis (goal-means network) Direct Goal-means network [OTT, 1998], [Woods & Hollnagel, 1987]
List Related In List Related methods, the expert is asked to provide lists of information, usually decisions. Table 12 shows list related methods.
Method Type Output Reference Decision analysis Direct Estimate of worth for all possible decisions for a task [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Construct Elicitation Construct Elicitation methods are used to obtain information about how the expert discriminates between entities in the problem domain. The most commonly used construct elimination method is Repertory Grid Analysis [Kelly, 1955]. For this method, the domain expert is presented with a list of entities and is asked to describe the similarities and differences between them. These similarities and differences are used to determine the important attributes of the entities. After completing the initial list of attributes, the knowledge engineer works with the domain expert to assign ratings to each entity/attribute pair. Table 13 shows construct elicitation methods.
Method Type Output Reference repertory grid Indirect Attributes (and entities if provided by subject) [Hudlicka, 1997], [Kelly, 1955] multi-dimensional scaling Indirect Attributes and relationships proximity scaling Indirect Attributes and relationships [Hudlicka, 1997]
SortingIn sorting methods, domain entities are sorted to determine how the expert classifies their knowledge. Table 14 shows sorting methods.
Method Type Output Reference card sorting Indirect Hierarchical cluster diagram (classification) [1], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Laddering In Laddering, a hierarchical structure of the domain is formed by asking questions designed to move up, down, and across the hierarchy. Table 15 shows laddering methods.
Method Type Output Reference Laddered grid Indirect A hierarchical map of the task domain [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
20 Questions This is a method used to determine how the expert gathers information by having the expert as the knowledge engineer questions. Table 16 shows the 20 questions method.
Method Type Output Reference 20 questions Indirect Amount and type of information used to solve problems; how problem space is organized, or how expert has represented
Task-relevant knowledge.[Cordingley, 1989], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990]
Document Analysis Document analysis involves gathering information from existing documentation. May or may not involve interaction with a human expert to confirm or add to this information.
Table 17 shows documentation analysis methods.
Method Type Output Reference Collect artifacts of task performance Indirect How expert organizes or processes task information, how it is compiled to present to others [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Document analysis Indirect (Usually) Conceptual graph [OTT, 1998], [Gordon et al., 1993] Goal Directed Analysis (goal-means network) Direct Goal-means network [OTT, 1998], [Woods & Hollnagel, 1987]
KE Methods by Knowledge Type Obtained Besides being grouped into direct and indirect categories, KE methods can also be grouped (to some extent) by the type of knowledge obtained. For example, many of the indirect KE methods are best at obtaining classification knowledge while direct methods are more suited for obtaining procedural knowledge. This does not, however, mean that the techniques can not be used for other knowledge types. Since some designers may not be able to directly express how they perform a design task, it might be useful to use an indirect method in conjunction with a direct method to obtain this information.
Information types used here are:
Many methods fit into more than one category and are listed more than once. Also, this classification shows the information most commonly extracted using a method and does not imply that only that type of information can be elicited.
- Procedures
- Problem solving strategy/Rationale
- Goals, sub-goals
- Classification
- Relationships
- Evaluation
Procedures These are methods that can be used to determine the steps followed to complete a task. Table 18 lists methods used to elicit procedures.
Method Category Output Type Reference Interviewing (structured, unstructured, semi-structured) Interviewing Procedures followed, knowledge used Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Concept Mapping Interview Procedures followed Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Thordsen, 1991], [Gowin & Novak, 1984] Interruption Analysis Interviewing Procedures, problem-solving strategy, rationale Direct [Hudlicka, 1997] Problem discussion Interview Solution strategies Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Tutorial interview Interview Whatever expert teaches! Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Entity life modeling Interview Entity life cycle diagram (entities and state changes) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] IDEF modeling Interview IDEF Model (functional decomposition) Direct [OTT, 1998], [McNeese & Zaff, 1991] Petri nets Interview Functional task net Direct [OTT, 1998], [Coovert et al., 1990], [Hura, 1987], [Weingaertner & Lewis, 1988] Questionnaire Interview Sequence of task actions, cause and effect relationships Direct [OTT, 1998], [Bainbridge, 1979] Task action mapping Interview Decision flow diagram (goals, subgoals, actions) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Coury et al., 1991] Retrospective case description Case Study Procedures followed Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Critical incident strategy Case Study Complete plan, plus factors that influenced the plan. Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Forward scenario simulation Case Study Procedures followed, reasons behind them Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Retrospective case description Case Study Procedures used to solve past problems Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Interesting cases Case Study Procedures used to solve unusual problems Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] protocol analysis (think aloud, talk aloud, eidetic reduction, retrospective reporting, behavioral descriptions, playback) Protocols Procedures, problem-solving strategy Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Ericsson & Simon, 1984], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Teachback Teachback Correction of misconceptions Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Critiquing Critiquing Evaluation of a problem solving strategy compared to alternatives Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] role playing Role Playing Procedures, difficulties encountered due to role Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] wizard of oz Simulation Procedures followed Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Simulations Simulation Problem solving strategies, procedures Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Problem analysis Simulation Procedures, rationale (like simulated interruption analysis) Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] On-site observation Observation Procedure, problem solving strategies Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Problem Solving Strategy These methods attempt to determine how the expert makes their decisions. Table 19 lists methods that elicit a problem solving strategy.
Method Category Output Type Reference Interviewing (structured, unstructured, semi-structured) Interviewing Procedures followed, knowledge used Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Interruption Analysis Interviewing Procedures, problem-solving strategy, rationale Direct [Hudlicka, 1997] Problem discussion Interview Solution strategies Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Tutorial interview Interview Whatever expert teaches! Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Uncertain information elicitation Interview Uncertainty about problems Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Critical incident strategy Case Study Complete plan, plus factors that influenced the plan. Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Forward scenario simulation Case Study Procedures followed, reasons behind them Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] protocol analysis (think aloud, talk aloud, eidetic reduction, retrospective reporting, behavioral descriptions, playback) Protocols Procedures, problem-solving strategy Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Ericsson & Simon, 1984], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] critiquing Critiquing Evaluation of a problem solving strategy compared to alternatives Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] wizard of oz Simulation Procedures followed Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Simulations Simulation Problem solving strategies, procedures Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Problem analysis Simulation Procedures, rationale (like simulated interruption analysis) Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Reclassification Goal Related Evidence needed to prove that a decision was correct Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] On-site observation Observation Procedure, problem solving strategies Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Goal Directed Analysis (goal-means network) Interview/Document Analysis Goal-means network Direct [OTT, 1998], [Woods & Hollnagel, 1987] 20 questions 20 Questions Amount and type of information used to solve problems; how problem space is organized, or how expert has represented
Task-relevant knowledge.Indirect [Cordingley, 1989], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Cloze experiments Indirect Model of decision-making rules and structures Indirect [Geiwitz, et al., 1990]
Goals/Subgoals These are methods that are concerned with extracting the goals and subgoals for performing the task. These methods are listed separately from procedures since ordering is not necessarily provided. Table 20 lists methods that elicit this information.
Method Category Output Type Reference ARK (ACT-based representation of knowledge) (combination of methods) Interview Goal-subgoal network
Includes production rules describing goal/subgoal relationshipDirect [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Task action mapping Interview Decision flow diagram (goals, subgoals, actions) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Coury et al., 1991] Critical Decision Method Case Study Goals considered, options generated, situation assessment Direct [Hudlicka, 1997], [Thordsen, 1991], [Klein et al., 1986] goal decomposition Goal Related Goals and subgoals Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Dividing the domain Goal Related How data is grouped to reach a goal Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Reclassification Goal Related Evidence needed to prove that a decision was correct Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Distinguishing goals Goal Related Minimal sets of discriminating features Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Goal Directed Analysis (goal-means network) Interview/Document Analysis Goal-means network Direct [OTT, 1998], [Woods & Hollnagel, 1987]
Classification These methods are used to classify entities within a domain. Figure 21 lists methods concerned with classification.
Method Category Output Type Reference Cognitive Structure Analysis (CSA) Interview Representational format of experts knowledge; content of the knowledge structure Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Data flow modeling Interview Data flow diagram (data items and data flow between them – no sequence information) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Gane & Sarson, 1977] Entity-relationship modeling Interview Entity relationship diagram (entities, attributes, and relationships) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] Entity life modeling Interview Entity life cycle diagram (entities and state changes) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] Object oriented modeling Interview Network of objects (types, attributes, relations) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Riekert, 1991] Semantic nets Interview Semantic Net (inc. relationships between objects) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Atkinson, 1990] Distinguishing goals Goal Related Minimal sets of discriminating features Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Decision analysis List Related Estimate of worth for all possible decisions for a task Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Discourse analysis (observation) Observation Taxonomy of tasks/subtasks or functions Direct [OTT, 1998], [Belkin & Brooks, 1988] Collect artifacts of task performance Document Analysis How expert organizes or processes task information, how it is compiled to present to others Indirect [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Document analysis Document Analysis Conceptual graph Indirect [OTT, 1998], [Gordon et al., 1993] repertory grid Construct Elicitation Attributes (and entities if provided by subject) Indirect [Hudlicka, 1997], [Kelly, 1955] multi-dimensional scaling Construct Elicitation Attributes and relationships Indirect proximity scaling Construct Elicitation Attributes and relationships Indirect [Hudlicka, 1997] card sorting Sorting Hierarchical cluster diagram (classification) Indirect [1], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] laddered grid Laddering A hierarchical map of the task domain Indirect [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Ranking augmented conceptual ranking Other Conceptual Ranking (ordering by value) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Chignell & Peterson, 1988], [Kagel, 1986], [Whaley, 1979]
Dependencies/Relationships Table 22 lists methods that obtain relationships between domain entities.
Method Category Output Type Reference Data flow modeling Interview Data flow diagram (data items and data flow between them – no sequence information) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Gane & Sarson, 1977] Entity-relationship modeling Interview Entity relationship diagram (entities, attributes, and relationships) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Swaffield & Knight, 1990] Object oriented modeling Interview Network of objects (types, attributes, relations) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Riekert, 1991] Semantic nets Interview Semantic Net (inc. relationships between objects) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Atkinson, 1990] Questionnaire Interview Sequence of task actions, cause and effect relationships Direct [OTT, 1998], [Bainbridge, 1979] Discourse analysis (observation) Observation Taxonomy of tasks/subtasks or functions Direct [OTT, 1998], [Belkin & Brooks, 1988] multi-dimensional scaling Construct Elicitation Attributes and relationships Indirect Proximity scaling Construct Elicitation Attributes and relationships Indirect [Hudlicka, 1997] card sorting Sorting Hierarchical cluster diagram (classification) Indirect [1], [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Laddered grid Laddering A hierarchical map of the task domain Indirect [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989]
Evaluation Table 23 lists methods that are used for evaluation of prototypes or other types of KE session results.
Method Category Output Type Reference teachback Teachback Correction of misconceptions Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] critiquing Critiquing Evaluation of a problem solving strategy compared to alternatives Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] System refinement Prototyping New test cases for a prototype system Direct
[Geiwitz, et al., 1990] System examination Prototyping Experts opinion on prototype’s rules and control structures Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] System validation Prototyping Outside experts evaluation of cases solved by expert and protocol system Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990] Rapid prototyping Prototyping Evaluation of system/procedure Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Diaper, 1989] Storyboarding Prototyping Prototype display design Direct [OTT, 1998], [McNeese & Zaff, 1991] Decision analysis List Related Estimate of worth for all possible decisions for a task Direct [Geiwitz, et al., 1990], [Cordingley, 1989] Ranking augmented conceptual ranking Other Conceptual Ranking (ordering by value) Direct [OTT, 1998], [Chignell & Peterson, 1988], [Kagel, 1986], [Whaley, 1979]
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